Investigating the Cognition Behind
the Intercultural Interactions of Four Japanese Teachers of English as a Foreign
Language
by
Natasha N. Walker
e-mail
the Author
Abstract
The quality of teachers' daily social and intellectual interactions is
influenced by effective communication and interpersonal skills. Moreover, when
considering the relationships between Japanese and non-Japanese teachers who work
together, the quality of their relationships may need to be assessed in terms of
their willingness to communicate with persons from different cultures, and the
ability to do so while respecting cultural differences. This paper examines these
two issues in the cognition of four Japanese teachers at a senior high school in
Japan. The principles for communicating with people from other cultures are first
defined in terms of cultural fluency and the Willingness to Communicate (WTC),
which two determinants of successful intercultural communication. Repertory grids
were used to elicit teachers' perceptions of effective intercultural communicators,
and they used concept maps share their understanding of intercultural
communication. Conversations with the four Japanese teachers revealed that they do
not see cultural fluency as a special skill but as a combination of experience and
insight gained from intercultural interactions. The consensus among the four
teachers is that it is natural for them to use interpersonal skills in
communicating with people from different cultures because they are interacting with
other individuals. The conclusion to this investigation was that the four teachers
realise that communication with non-Japanese colleagues requires a purpose beyond
the practice of language skills. However, while they understand that intercultural
communication requires effective interpersonal skills, they also believe that good
language skills will give them the confidence to communicate in English.
Introduction
Since the year 2000, Japan's Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology has been working steadily towards cultivating a rich
intellectual environment in which youth can develop the skills to represent the
nation's interests at home and abroad (MEXT 2002). The promotion of national interest
in a borderless society requires the expression of ideas in English, the lingua
franca of an international society (Arita 2003). Accordingly, an important aspect
of educational reform is the raising of school students' competence in English by
employing native speakers of English to teach in schools. However, it is widely
believed that this move may have a negative effect on Japanese teachers' perceptions
of their own English competence. One concern is that native speakers of English may
reinforce the notion that students should strive for native competence in English
(Kubota 2004). Another concern is that Japanese teachers may feel that they should
know English perfectly to be effective teachers (Murphey & Sasaki 1998). Compounding
these concerns are reports that Japanese teachers have refused to cooperate with
their native English-speaking colleagues. The reasons may include non-Japanese
teachers' dependence on their Japanese colleagues (Akiyama 2004), and the expectation
that conversations between them should only be conducted in English. Japanese EFL
teachers who have lived overseas may understand that establishing new rules for
communicating with their non-Japanese colleagues may take time and effort (Yamaguchi
& Wiseman 2003; Yashima, Zenuk-Nishide & Shimizu 2004), but those with little
international experience may feel apprehensive about speaking in English if they have
low confidence in their ability (Allen, Long, O'Mara & Judd 2003). The latter
situation may present a problem within the spatial arrangement of the staff room in
the Japanese school, where the presence of native English speaking teachers in the
staff room indicates a tacit agreement to communicate with others in English (Vanderstraaten
2001).
The quality of teachers' daily social, emotional and intellectual
interactions is influenced by the practice of effective communication and
interpersonal skills (Griffith, Steptoe & Cropley, 1999; Jarzabkowski, 2002).
Moreover, when considering the relationships between Japanese and non-Japanese
teachers who work together, the quality of their relationships may need to be
assessed in terms of their willingness to communicate with persons from different
cultures, and the ability to do so while respecting cultural differences. This paper
examines these two issues in the cognition of four Japanese teachers at a senior high
school in Japan. This examination is pursued in an investigation of cultural fluency
and the Willingness to Communicate (WTC), which are two determinants of successful
intercultural communication (Fantini 2000; Yamaguchi & Wiseman 2003). The
investigation is facilitated by concept mapping and repertory grids, two approaches
that allow researchers to observe the cognition that influences individual behaviour.
Cultural Fluency
In the Japanese staff room, teachers create social relationships that
are conducive to teamwork (Ninomiya 1990) by talking about themselves and their
teaching activities (Williams, Prestage & Bedward 2001), and by physically arranging
the work space to reduce isolation (Phillips, 2003). Within this workspace, Japanese
teachers who interact with non-Japanese may feel dissatisfied with their working
relationships if communication is frequently disrupted by misunderstandings (Elfenbein
& Ambady 2003). Cultural fluency may be a key requirement for efficient
communication, as it is a combination of effective interpersonal skills, behaviours,
attitudes, knowledge, and proficiency in a foreign language (Fantini 2000). When
people of two different cultures interact, cultural fluency is the appropriate
application of respect, empathy, flexibility, patience, interest, curiosity,
openness, the willingness to suspend judgement, tolerance for ambiguity and sense of
humour (Dawson, et al 1999; Nixon & Dawson 2002; Frankel 2003; Flowerday, Schraw &
Stevens 2004; Hojat, et al 2003; Huber 2003; Indiana University School of Medicine
2004; Irmsher 1996; Lane & Klenke 2004; Martin & Anderson 1998; Sonnenberg 2004;
Torrance & Goff 1990). Definitions of cultural fluency traits will be shown later in
this article.
Willingness to Communicate
The Willingness to Communicate (WTC) is defined in terms of low
communication anxiety, which is also known as communication apprehension.
Communication apprehension (CA) is a learned condition that may be caused by
unfamiliar social situations, cultural dissimilarity, and the use of a second
language (Yoon Jung & McCroskey 2004). Individuals with low CA may be more likely to
start conversations, and they are expected to have the willingness to communicate
with people in a new culture (Cole & McCroskey 2004). Individuals with WTC are
thought to be more open, self-confident, willing to share their ideas with others,
and curious about new cultures (Yashima, Zenuk-Nishiide & Shimizu date). However,
Japanese teachers who are apprehensive about their English speaking ability may
appear reluctant to converse with their non-Japanese colleagues. At the same time,
Japanese teachers who are confident in their speaking ability may make little effort
to converse with their colleagues in English (McIntyre 2003). This may mean that for
Japanese teachers to enjoy harmonious collegial relationships, they should be
confident in their English language competence and make the effort to converse with
their colleagues.
The Repertory Grid Technique
The repertory grid technique is used to elicit qualitative
information about an individual's perceptions and interpretations of everyday
phenomena. This elicitation takes place in an interview, during which a physical grid
is used to elicit prior knowledge and experiences. The technique is based on Personal
Construct Theory (PCT) (Marsden & Littler 2000a), which states that individuals
choose the interpretations and perceptions that they apply to everyday phenomena.
Individuals use similarities and contrasts to create mental pictures of their
experiences and make sense of the world (Senior 1996; Marsden & Littler 2000b). While
individuals differ from each other in the way they see a particular phenomenon, they
may have similar perceptions of the same phenomenon or of some aspect of that
phenomenon if they share similar social contexts. For example, the four Japanese
teachers have shared the same workspace for a number of years, and their behaviours
are influenced to a great extent by the established school culture, so the repertory
grid interviews may uncover similarities in their constructs. Accordingly, repertory
grids were chosen because they permit the retrieval of Japanese teachers' definitions
and descriptions of intercultural performance. They were also chosen because (a)
their underlying purpose is to generate subjective information and because (b) the
elicitation of constructs and contrasts is done without the imposition of
predetermined concepts by the researcher (Myers, Brewin & Winter 1999; Coshall 2000;
Baddoo & Hall 2002).
The repertory grid's physical layout is designed to elicit
elements, constructs, and contrasts (Harris 2001; Baddoo & Hall
2002), which are three types of information that will help to interpret teachers・
principles for intercultural communication. Elements were presented on the
grids as two sets of individuals whom the Japanese teachers believed to be effective
or ineffective intercultural communicators. Constructs were the qualities that
describe individuals or elements who were effective intercultural communicators.
Contrasts were presented as the qualities that differentiated ineffective
communicators. The distance between each element and its construct or contrast was
measured with rating scales that were anchored in respondents・subjective experiences.
In other words, the Japanese teachers were asked to rate the distance of each
individual on the grid from the related construct or contrast. The procedure for the
repertory grid interviews is discussed in the 'Procedure' section below.
Concept Mapping
A concept map is a two-dimensional web diagram that is used for
gathering and exploring information about a specific topic. Concept mapping is the
technique used to create a concept map. The technique was developed by Prof. J. D.
Novak at Cornell University in the 1960s as a way of eliciting the prior knowledge of
learners before teaching them new concepts (See for example: Novak 1990). Concept
maps are made up of networks, nodes and links. Networks
answer the question: 'What is the central research question around which to build the
map?' Nodes represent concepts related to the central research question. They
answer the question: 'What are the words that you can associate with the research
question?' Links show the relationships between concepts, and they are usually
drawn as lines with an arrow symbol to denote the direction of the relationship
between concepts. Links are usually labelled with prepositions, or other phrases that
answer the question: 'How are any two concepts related to each other within the
network, or to the central research question?' Researchers use the above questions to
guide respondents in communicating complex ideas or in sharing their understanding of
an issue.
Concept mapping is a cognitive exercise that assumes that individual
actions are guided by cognitive schema composed of generalisations, assumptions or
images (Stoddart, et al 2000). The Japanese teachers interviewed for this research
were not conscious of the connections within their own schema, and they had no
experience with concept mapping so they had to be trained to create two dimensional
representations of their thinking processes (Cossette 2002). The sensitivity of
concept maps to the structure of individual knowledge allowed the observation of
teachers' contextual knowledge (McClure, Sonak & Suen 1999; Nicoll 2001; Bign・
Manzano, Kuster & Vila 2002) or individual approaches to intercultural communication.
Concept maps were created and developed with the English language in
mind, the construction of a perfectly hierarchical map, in which the concepts can be
read top-down, was not considered a realistic goal (Kilic 2003). Therefore,
modifications had to be made to the process used in this research, so as to
accommodate non-native English speakers. The procedure used for creating the concept
maps is discussed in the 'Procedure' section below.
Research Setting
The respondents are four Japanese teachers of English as a foreign
language, who work at a senior high school in Japan. They are fluent speakers of
English who have worked together for between 6 and 15 years. Two of the respondents
have travelled extensively and have lived in English speaking countries. All
respondents have had a number of non-Japanese EFL colleagues since starting to work
at this senior high school. They are all actively involved in international exchange
programmes so they, as well as other members of the department, continue to develop
their speaking skills by using English in everyday conversations with their
English-speaking colleagues. For ease of reference, they have been given the
pseudonyms Tame, Rosh, Chui and Kane.
Method
This research was a single case study in which the unit of analysis
was 'cultural fluency'. The data was interpreted to create a working theory of
cultural fluency from the perspective of second language speakers. This was achieved
by comparing the results with the literature on cultural fluency and the Willingness
to Communicate. Triangulation was achieved with the use of two separate approaches,
concept maps and repertory grids, which are explained later. The researcher's
interpretations were also discussed with respondents at the end of the study. The
case study protocol involved (a) defining the case, (b) specifying cultural fluency
as the issue under investigation, (c) selecting and interviewing respondents, (d)
displaying respondents' descriptions of their intercultural activities in detail and,
(e) generalising the results to the relevant literature.
Procedure
Repertory Grid Construct Elicitation: 'Intercultural
communication'
The repertory grid sheet, shown in Appendix A, defines 'intercultural
communication', 'intercultural communicator', and 'communication' so the teachers
could focus their thinking before attempting to complete the grids. This was
necessary because the constructs were personality traits inferred from observed
behaviour (Peters 1994). These interviews began with explanations of personal
construct psychology in English and Japanese. The interview protocol saw the
researcher following respondents through each row to keep them on task, to assist
with the choice of words and to reduce the misunderstanding of instructions. The
teachers were asked to choose two examples each of an 'excellent intercultural
communicator' and a 'poor intercultural communicator' from the breadth of their
experiences, in addition to the elements 'myself as an intercultural communicator'
and 'the intercultural communicator I wish to become'. On the grid, elements were
marked with Xs and Os in pre-selected triads. Respondents wrote down shared
constructs in the left hand column, and indicated dissimilar characteristics in the
right hand column. The teachers were then asked to rate each 'communicator' on a
scale of one to five, with 1 being descriptions of poor intercultural
communicators, and 5 being descriptions of excellent intercultural
communicators. Comprehension checks and a review of all the constructs elicited
completed each interview.
Repertory Grid Analysis
The data from the repertory grids were analysed manually because of
their small size and because the constructs were chosen by the teachers. This was
justified because the intention was to compare the data with the literature, maintain
flexibility in interpretations and stay close to the original information (Easterby-Smith
1996; Marsden & Littler 2000b; Leach, Freshwater, Aldridge & Sunderland 2001; Peters
1994; Stewart 1997). The constructs and contrasts from the repertory grids of Tame,
Rosh, Chui and Kane are listed in Figure 1 and Figure 2.
Figure 1: Repertory Grid Constructs
Figure 2: Repertory Grid Contrasts: 'Characteristics of poor
intercultural communicators'
The data from the repertory grids were cross-referenced with
definitions of cultural fluency traits that were mentioned in the introduction. These
definitions are defined in the literature (Dawson, et al 1999; Nixon & Dawson 2002;
Frankel 2003; Flowerday, Schraw & Stevens 2004; Hojat, et al 2003; Huber 2003;
Indiana University School of Medicine 2004; Irmsher 1996; Lane & Klenke 2004; Martin
& Anderson 1998; Sonnenberg 2004; Torrance & Goff 1990). Explanatory statements from
the Japanese teachers during the repertory grids interviews assisted in the
organisation of the trait definitions. The aggregated traits from the concept maps
(procedure described below) and the repertory grids are presented in Figure 3 and
highlighted with a maru or circle, which in Japanese is equivalent to a check
mark.
Figure 3: Cultural fluency traits found in repertory grids and
concept maps
Concept Map Interviews 'Communicating with people of different
cultures'
The concept map protocol was derived from the literature (Shavelson,
Long & Lewin 1994; Safayeni, Derbentseva, & Cas 2003), and featured a pre-interview
training component. In the research interview, teachers were asked to contribute
nouns instead of ideas when creating their maps because they taught
grammar and would understand this term more clearly. They were asked to write down
ten nouns related to their own communication experiences in these sessions. Using the
networking technique, the link labels were elicited with the question 'How does noun
A relate to noun B?' so that the teachers could freely discuss relationships between
the links (McClure, et al 1999) before deciding on appropriate definitions or
modifiers (Ferry, Hedelberg & Harper 1997; Bign・et al 2002). When the concepts
needed to be explained, teachers were asked to write examples above or near link
lines (Kilic 2000). The concepts they chose are listed in Figure 4, and the number of
links leading to and away from each concept is shown in brackets. The number of links
leading to and away from each noun is significant in the analysis of the maps,
because it may indicate the importance of that particular idea or feature to the main
research question, which is 'communicating with people of different cultures'.
Figure 4: Concept map concepts related to 'Intercultural
Communication'
Concept Map Analysis
The concept maps were analysed with close attention to information
found in the links (McClure, et al 1999; Bign・et al 2002). The ideas were
reorganised by writing down the relationships between concepts in terms of link
modifiers (Shavelson, et al 1994; Kilic 2003) and as mentioned above, respondents
were asked to verify those statements (Bign・et al 2002). As shown in Figure 5, the
statements were written in such a way that they would correspond to the number of
links leading to and away from each noun. The purpose of this rewriting was to
highlight concepts that teachers emphasised as being important to intercultural
communication. These emphases will be discussed in the 'interpretation' section
below.
Figure 5: Re-written links from concept maps
Interpretation of Data from Repertory Grids and Concept Maps
Comparisons between the literature on cultural fluency and the data
from teachers' concepts maps and repertory grids (Stewart 1997; Bign・et al 2002)
revealed that Tame, Rosh, Chui and Kane described intercultural communication as a
combination of cultural fluency traits (Figure 3 and Figure 5) and language skills
(Figure 1 and Figure 4).
Considering the teachers' feedback and the constructs in Figure 1 as
a whole unit, it appears that a person who has a good command of English will be
categorised as an excellent intercultural communicator if (s)he is easy-going, likes
to try different things (Tame), is broad-minded and friendly (Rosh), is positive, is
not afraid of talking (Chui) and is sympathetic (Kane). Conversations with Tame,
Rosh, Chui and Kane revealed that they do not perceive cultural fluency as a special
skill but as the result of insight gained from accumulated experiences in
intercultural communication. The consensus is that it is natural for them to use
interpersonal skills in communicating with people from different cultures because
they are interacting with fellow human beings. They are also aware that differences
in culture and language obscure similarities in the expression of emotions and
personal beliefs.
The literature points to a clear distinction between language fluency
and cultural fluency, and there we can see examples of Japanese students who were
fluent in English, but who could not communicate effectively with others in a new
country (Allen, et al 2003; Yamaguchi & Wiseman 2003; Yashima, et al 2004; Witteborn
2003). It was interesting, however, that none of the elements in the original grids
reflect this distinction. That is, a 'poor intercultural communicator' was never said
to be fluent in English, or have good language skills (Figure 2). This may have
happened because respondents organised elements and related activities in a coherent
way to fulfil the requirements of the interview. That is, in order to retrieve the
contrasts, a 'poor intercultural communicator' had to be chosen to exemplify
undesirable traits (Grainger 2004). The elicitation of contrasts (Figure 2) that are
not direct opposites of constructs (Peters 1994; Senior 1996) thus revealed that
interpersonal traits such as 'selfish' 'arrogant' and 'negative' (Figure 2)
outnumber references to inadequate language skills to describe poor intercultural
communicators. This led to the initial assumption that personality traits would be
more important for judging cultural fluency. This assumption was later tested in the
post-research interviews. Kane's repertory grid, for instance, did not refer to 'language' but
in the post-research interview her initial response was that Japanese people who are
unable to express themselves in English are basically poor intercultural
communicators since language is a tool for communication. However, the assumption was
supported by her explanation that 'language knowledge is superficial
because by itself, it cannot allow people to express deep ideas and concepts' and the
clarification that language skills alone do not guarantee 'humane communication' if
persons have 'no interests outside of [their] present experiences' (Fantini 2000).
Language related statements from repertory grids and concept maps, as
shown in Figures 1 and 4 indicate that respondents value 'communication competence'
which is the adequate ability to give information by talking or writing (O'Mara, Long
& Allen 2003). Indeed, respondents have asserted that it would be difficult to
demonstrate openness (a cultural fluency trait) without communication competence.
Taking examples from the repertory grids of Tame, Rosh and Chui (Figure 1), the
constructs 'good at expressing oneself', '1st Grade of STEP test', and 'can speak
English well' refer to 'communication competence' but a closer look at other
constructs such as 'comfortable speaking English', 'experience living in a foreign
country' and 'any chances to meet foreigners' refer to another aspect of language
competence. It is known as the Willingness to Communicate and is defined as the end
product of self confidence, the motivation to communicate in English, familiarity
with foreign cultures, and the ability to assume cultural norms related to talking
(Allen, et al 2003; Yamaguchi & Wiseman 2003; Yashima, et al 2004). The issue of self
confidence is strongly exemplified by Chui's repertory grid (Figure 1), which
emphasises communication competence and her concept map (Figure 4), which has five
links to 'difficulties'. Discussions during the concept map interview uncovered her
feeling that people who did not receive positive early exposure to English tend to
develop negative attitudes towards the language, non-Japanese persons and
intercultural communication in general.
The researcher is aware that communication is driven by personal
choice and situational demands (Allen, et al 2003; Witteborn 2003), so concept maps
were used primarily to judge the willingness to communicate because respondents were
asked to describe their own interactions with people of different cultures. Awareness
of diverse cultural norms and the motivation to communicate are suggested by the
concept map statements that (a) 'gestures and languages are specific to cultures', (b)
'if we are eager to learn and master language and to listen to others we can become
good communicators', (c) 'it is fun to speak with others and discover new things' and
that (d) 'social status and gender influence how we communicate, for example the
register we use when speaking' (Figure 5). This interpretation was confirmed by
Kane's statement that people need to be motivated to communicate across cultures and
that curiosity is the starting point for expanding one's world view.
The working theory of cultural fluency from the perspective of second
language speakers of English, as derived from this study, is that it is the extent to
which cultural fluency traits are combined with the willingness to communicate in
English as a foreign language. As mentioned earlier, the respondents and their
colleagues had instituted a policy of 'English only' for communicating within the
English department prior to the researcher's arrival. This indicates the willingness
to support each others's language development as well as a high motivation to improve
language skills for the purposes of teaching (Ben-Peretz 2000; Williams, Prestage &
Bedward 2001; Yashima, et al. 2004) and for the practical purpose of communicating
with hosts when accompanying students on overseas exchange programmes. There was no
direct measurement of the willingness to communicate, but from the constructs in the
repertory grids 'self confidence', 'many chances to meet foreigners', 'experience
living in a foreign country' (Allen, et al. 2003; Yashima, et al. 2004) and
discussion with respondents, it has emerged as an important dimension of
intercultural communication.
Conclusion
The outcomes of this study indicate that Tame, Rosh, Chui and Kane
use extra-linguistic themes in their own communication, and use these themes to
assess the cultural fluency of other individuals (Perry 1989; Witteborn 2003). They
realise that communication with non-Japanese persons requires a purpose above and
beyond the practice of language skills (Yashima, et al. 2004). They had never
reflected deeply on the issue of interpersonal communication before this study, but
they believed implicitly that personality and personal beliefs will influence the
quality of their intercultural interactions.
The tentative conclusion to this research is that while Chui, Kane,
Rosh and Tame understand implicitly that intercultural communication requires
effective interpersonal skills, they also believe that the confidence to communicate
comes from having good language skills. In a sense, their cooperation with this
research indicated openness, risk taking (tolerance for ambiguity) and the
Willingness to Communicate. These characteristics augur the ability to shift
attitudes and skills according to the demands of a continually changing educational
culture, which is a positive indicator for professional practice (Armour &
Fernandez-Balboa 2001). Subsequent studies on this topic should attempt to glean
information from those persons who are labelled 'poor' or 'excellent' intercultural
communicators. An understanding of the socio-historical issues that impact on their
constructs will also facilitate a richer commentary on their intercultural
interactions (Witteborn 2003).
Rereading literature and the reports of interpersonal problems
experienced by Japanese and non-Japanese teachers (McConnell 1999; Nishiyama 1999;
Benoit & Haugh 2001; Lotbini駻e 2001), it seems that teachers are unaware that
pedagogy is a community effort whose primary objective is to meaningfully connect
students with the world. Interactions with persons of different cultures can provide
valuable insights into the challenges that students will face in the wider society
once they leave the formal education system. In that regard, professionalism must be
reconceived as the application of pre-existing interpersonal and social skills in
unfamiliar situations, bearing in mind the educational target that is being pursued
(Cheng & Tsui 1996; Williams, Prestage & Bedward 2001). During the repertory grid
interviews, participantss' focus on interpersonal skills significantly blurred
cultural dissimilarities and obviated the need for specific cultural knowledge.
Maintaining this focus and channelling interpersonal skills towards the fulfilment of
students' learning needs are the starting point for the negotiation of teachers'
roles in the staff room and the classroom (Lewis 2003).
There is a process/skill relationship inherent in 'intercultural
communication' and 'cultural fluency'. The former is a straightforward awareness that
two people who interact are different from each other in relatively superficial terms
such as language, nationality and power position. The latter, which refers to their
engagement on a deeper, human level is also straightforward, but may be obscured by
the focus on difference. Reframing dissimilarities without the national and
socio-political labels, teachers may come to realise that they are capable of more
effectively working together towards their mutual goals.
Appendix
Instructions: Please enter the information on the grid in English or
Japanese (kanji with furigana or hiragana).
Definitions
Intercultural Communication
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About the author
Natasha N. Walker has lived in Japan for 5 years, and is currently pursuing
the EdD (Doctor of Education) degree at Griffith
University, Australia. Her research is based on the social and cognitive
dimensions of intercultural communication, as well as the impact of these dimensions
on professional development and personal growth. Ms. Walker coaches Japanese
professionals who use English for interpersonal communication and public speaking in
their everyday work. She has also developed intercultural communication training
workshops for the Japanese public.
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Copyright: Natasha N. Walker
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